Science

Science

Science is a systematic undertaking that constructs and organizes knowledge about the universe in the form of verifiable explanations and predictions. The first roots of science go back to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from about 3500 to 3000 BCE. C. His contribution to mathematics: astronomy and medicine entered and shaped Greek physics of classical antiquity: making formal efforts to supply an evidence of events within the physical world based on natural causes. But it was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The scientific revolution that began as new ideas and discoveries in the 16th century. They began with the previous Greek. Concepts and traditions. The methodology soon played a crucial role within the creation of data , and it had been not until the 19th century that a lot of institutional and professional features of science began to take shape; Modern science is generally divided into three main branches consisting of natural sciences: they study nature in a broad sense; Social science, which studies individuals and societies; And formal science:  which studies abstract concepts. There is disagreement: however, on whether formal sciences actually constitute a science because they are not based on empirical evidence. Science is based on research: it is usually done in academic and research institutions, as well as government agencies and companies. The practical impact of research project has led to the increase of scientific policies that seek to influence the scientific company by prioritizing the event of economic products, weapons, health care, and protection of the environment.

History of Science

Academy of Science

In a broader sense, science existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is different in its approach and successful in its results: hence, it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the word. Science was a type of knowledge in its original sense, rather than a particular term for the pursuit of such knowledge. Specifically: This was the type of knowledge  which people can communicate with and share with each other. For example: knowledge about how natural things work and the development of complex abstract thinking long before recorded history. This ranges from creating complex calendars, techniques for cooking poisonous plants, public works at scale. National: Like those who took advantage of the flooding of reservoirs, dams and buildings like dikes and pyramids. However no coherent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which is true altogether communities, and other sorts of community knowledge, like mythology and legal systems. The metallurgy was known in prehistory, and the Vivian culture was the first producer of bronze alloys. The initial use of heating and mixing substances is believed to have turned into alchemy over time. Early cultures neither words nor concepts "science" and "nature" were part of the ideological landscape in the Near East. Ancient knowledge used on the properties of waste natural chemical products for the manufacture of ceramics: ceramics, glass, soap: metals, lime, plaster and waterproofing; He also studied animal physiology: anatomy and purposeful behavior. However, he had a keen interest in medicine: he felt that philosophers had little interest in collecting information only about the natural world before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature": the same words they describe as natural "ways". Used to do in which a plant grows: and "way" in which: for example: a tribe worships a paper deity. For this reason: It is said that these people were the first philosophers in the strict sense: and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". Natural Philosophy: Forerunner of Natural Sciences: The knowledge of nature and the things that are true for each community were distinguished, and the special quest for such knowledge was named philosophy, the field of early philosophers- physical. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly curious about astronomy. In contrast, classical scientists believed that independent.

Natural Philosophy

Renaissance and early modern science

 New developments in optics played a role in the early Renaissance, challenging long-standing metaphysical ideas about perception, as well as contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as camera obscure and telescope. Before Wee, we now know how the Renaissance began: Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham produced a school oncology on a causal series that began with Sensation: Perception: and finally Aristotle's personal and universal forms. A vision model later known as:  pg; Spaggi was exploited and studied by Renaissance artists. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four reasons: formal, material, and final. In the 16th century: Copernicus produced a supporting model of the solar system, in contrast to Ptolemy's geological model. It was based on a theorem that planets have longer orbital periods because their orbits are farther from the center of the motlon which they found to disagree with the Ptolemy model. Kepler and others questioned the notion that the only function of the eye is perception: and focused primarily on the optics of the eye for the propagation of light. Kepler saw the eye as a model, filled with an opening in front of it to create the pupil of the entrance. They found that all the light from one point of view was drawn to a point behind the glass sphere. The optic chain ends in the retina behind the eye. However, Kepler is the best: to improve Copernicus's heliocentric model by exploring Coppellus's laws of planetary motoneur. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as an exploration of Sorges's harmony. Galileo made innovative experiments and experiments. However: He was persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to analyze the Copperman system. Galileo used the pope's arguments and put them in Simpton's voice in the "Dialogue on the Tivo Chiefworld 1D System": which greatly influenced  new printing technology was used to publish Several arguments, including some that widely disagree with contemporary views of nature. Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Declan emphasized personal thinking and argued that mathematics should be used instead of geometry to study nature. Bacon emphasized the importance of experimentation over contemplation. Bacon further questioned Aristotle's concepts of formal reason and final reason, and promoted the idea that science should study love. From "simple" natures: like heat, instead of assuming that there is a specific nature: or "formal cause", each complex type of thing. This new science began to see itself as the "laws of nature". This updated approach to nature studies was viewed mechanically. Bacon also argued that science should first target practical inventions to improve human life.

Roger Bacon

Age of Enlightenment of Science

As a precursor to the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now known as classical mechanics, that could be confirmed by experiment and explained using mathematics (Philisize Naturalis Principia Mathematica). Leibniz also included words from Aristotelian physics, but is now used in a new, non-teleological way, for example "energy" and "potential". This led to a change in the vision of objects: where Aristotle saw that objects have certain innate goals that can be real, objects are now considered devoid of innate goals. In the Francis Bacon style, Leibniz considered that different types of things function according to the same general laws of nature, without particular formal or final reasons for each type of things. It is during this period that the term "science" is gradually used to refer to a type of knowledge, especially to a knowledge of nature, which means the ancient term "natural philosophy". During this time, the stated purpose and value of science became the production of wealth and inventions, which would improve human life in the physical sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of science is to end human life with new inventions and money," and discourage scientists from searching for abstract philosophical or spiritual ideas that they believed were more human Contributed very little to happiness. Science was dominated by scientific societies and academies during the Enlightenment, which transformed universities into centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturing of the scientific profession. Another important event was the popularization of science among the rapidly growing population.
Some  marked the 18th century as a dull period in the history of science; However, the century saw significant progress in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; Development of biological classification; A new understanding of magnetism and electricity; And the maturity of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry. In this regard, the lessons of history and the social structures built on it can be discarded. The XIX century is a particularly important period in the history of science, as many distinctive features of contemporary modern science began to take shape during this time, such as: the transformation of life and physics, frequent use of precision instruments, "biologists", The presence of words like "physicist", "scientist"; Slowly moving away from old labels such as "natural philosophy" and "natural history", further professionalization of those studying nature led to a shortage of amateur naturalists, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society, economic expansion . And the industrialization of many countries enriches the writing of scientific dissemination and the presence of scientific journals.
In the early 1800s, John Dalton suggested modern atomic theory, which was based on Democritus' original idea of individual particles. John Herschel and William 1 both; newel (systematic method: the latter coined the term scientific. When Charles Darwin published Origin of Species, he established evolution as the prime explanation of biological complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a naturalistic explanation of how Originated. Species, but it gained widespread acceptance only a century later. Laws for conservation of energy, conservation of momentum, and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe, where there may be little loss of resources. Steam engines With the advent of the. Industrial Revolution, a greater understanding was that not all forms of energy defined in physics were equally useful: they did not have the same energy quality. This understanding led to the development of laws of thermodynamics, free of which The energy universe is seen to decrease continuously: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time. Electromagnetic theory was also established in the Nineteenth century new questions arose which were easily answered using Newton's framework. Su could not be given. Events allowing disintegration of the atom in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays prompted the discovery of radioactivity. The following year the first sub-atomic particle, the electron, was discovered.

Science project

Space Science Project

A science project is an educational activity for students that involves experimentation or model building in one of the science disciplines. Students can present their science project in science fair, so they can also call it science fair project. Science projects can be classified into four main types. Science projects are done by students from all over the world. Experimental Projects Experimental projects, also known as research projects, begin with a question, use the scientific method to complete the investigation, and a report detailing the results and conclusions and a summary. Ends with Engineering projects Engineering projects, also known as technology projects, begin with the design of a machine or mechanical structure to improve power or performance. Researchers apply all their design ideas to the models they create. The model will be tested to evaluate the design. Visualization Projects Visualization projects include the creative montage of a visualization panel and the creation of a model to show the visual representation of a large event. Creating a model of a solar system, a house, or a simple electrical circuit is considered an exhibition project. Display boards are used to enhance the presentation. A tablet can be connected to a display panel to create an interactive display panel. Theoretical Projects Theoretical projects may include formats similar to experimental or engineering projects. However, for various possible reasons, such as lack of feasibility due to cost, actual experimentation is not done.

Science fair

The Science Fair is a competitive event, organized by schools around the world. The hallmark of a science fair is that project entries use the scientific method to test a hypothesis. There are no science fair exhibitions or just project exhibitions. Students present the results of their science projects in the form of a report, a blackboard, or a model they have created. Science fairs allow elementary, middle and high school students to compete in science and technology activities. The goal of science fair is to give students the answer to a hypothesis based question. Students  work on science fair  in addition to their school work. Therefore, most science fair tickets are generally modified versions of existing experiments. Display panels help science fair judges, visitors and other participants tell the specifics of a project. The science fair also provides a mechanism for students with a keen interest in science to combine students with mentors from nearby colleges and universities, so that they can use the instruction and equipment from local schools. The history of science fairs dates back to 1942, when William Emerson Ritter and Edward W. Scripps started "The Science Talent hunt" for high school students. The first United States National Science Fair was won by Alan J. Fletcher with an exhibition of the laws of motion when he was IS. In the United States, science fairs became popular from 1950s. Interest in science reached a new level after the world's first two nuclear weapons use and television dawn. As the decade progressed, scientific stories in the news, such as the introduction of Jonas Salk polio shot and Sputnik, brought science fiction into reality and drew a growing number of students to fairs. Science Fair Competitions Most countries have regional science fairs, in which interested students can participate independently. The winners of these regional fairs send the students to national fairs like ISEF and CWSF. National science fairs usually send winners to international fairs such as ISET and EUCYS.