The Moon

The Moon

The Moon

The Moon is an celestial body that orbits the Earth as its only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the solar system and is the largest satellite orbiting it, relative to the size of the planet. The Moon is the second most dense satellite in the Solar System, after Jupiter satellite, whose density is known. The Moon is believed to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, and not after Earth. The most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon was formed from relics that left the shape of Mars between the Earth and an imaginary body after a giant impact called Theia. New research on the Moon's rocks, while not rejecting Thia's hypothesis, suggests that the Moon may be older than before. The Moon is in synchronous rotation with the Earth, and therefore always reflects the same side of the Earth, the Near Side. Per libration. More than half of the total lunar surface can be seen from Earth. The near side is marked by dark volcanic marshes that fill the gaps between bright crust highlands and major impact craters. After the Sun, the Moon is the second brightest celestial body regularly visible in the Earth's sky. Its surface is indeed dark, although it seems much brighter than the night sky, with slightly higher reflectivity than worn asphalt. Its gravitational effect has a slightly longer effect on sea tides, body tides and daytime. The average orbital distance or 1.28 light seconds of the Moon is. It is about thirty times the diameter of the Earth. The apparent size of the Moon in the sky is almost identical to that of the Sun, as the star is about 400 times the distance and diameter of the Moon. Therefore, the Sun covers the Sun almost properly during a total solar eclipse. This apparent visual shape match will not continue in the distant future as the Moon's distance from Earth is increasing gradually. The Moon was struck by a man-made object in September 1959, when Moon 2 of the Soviet Union, an unmanned spacecraft, intentionally crashed on the lunar surface. The feat came after the first successful soft landing on the Moon by Luna 9 in 1966. NASA's Apollo program in the United States completed the only manned lunar mission to date, beginning with Apollo's first manned mission. 8 in 1968, and six manned landings between 1969 and 1972, first as Apollo 11 in July 1969. These expeditions returned lunar rocks that have been used to develop a geological understanding of the origin of the moon, its internal structure and later history. of the Moon. Since the 1972 Apollo 17 mission, the Moon has only been visited by unmanned spacecraft. Both the natural prominence of the Moon and its regular cycle in the earthly sky seen from Earth have provided cultural context and implications for human societies and cultures since ancient times. Such cultural influences can be found in languages, lunar calendar systems, art, and mythology.

Name and etymology of The Moon

The common English proper name of the Earth's natural satellite is simply the Moon, which has a capital M which in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-European Mensis "month" which may be related to the verb "measure". And especially in science fiction to distinguish our moon from others, while in the poem "Luna" has been used to denote the modernization of the Earth's moon. Cynthia is another poetic, albeit rare, moon named as a goddess, while Celine is the Greek goddess of the moon. The common English adjective on the moon is "lunar", formed from the Latin word for moon, lime. The adjective selenium. Derived from the Greek word for moon, selene and used to describe the moon as a world rather than an object in the sky, it is rare, while its related selenic was originally a rare synonym, but now almost always refers to the element Does selenium chemical. However, the Greek word for moon provides us with the prefix seleno — as in selenography, the study of the physical features of the moon, as well as the name of the element selenium. The Greek goddess of desert and hunting, Artemis, equaled the Roman Diana, one of whose symbols was the moon and often considered the moon goddess, also called Cynthia from her famous birthplace, Mount Cvanthus. These names, Luna, Cynthia, and Celine, are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits, such as the Perricanthian Apollune and Selenuccentric.

Formation of The Moon

Formation of The Moon

The moon was formed 4.51 billion years ago, about 60 million years before the solar system's origin. Various mechanisms of formation have been proposed, including fragmentation of the moon from the Earth's crust through centrifugal force. The major hypothesis is that the Earth – Moon system was formed after the impact of a Mars-shaped body with proto-Earth. The impact threw the material into the Earth's orbit, and the material then accumulated and formed the moon. The far side of the moon has a crust that is thicker than the near side. This is believed to be because the moon merged into two separate bodies. This hypothesis, while not perfect, probably explains the evidence better. Eight months before the October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged other lunar scientists: "You're eighteen months old. Go back to your Apollo data, back to your computer, to your computer Have it. Do what you do, but make up your mind. Don't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the birth of the moon. "At the 1984 conference in Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis is the most widespread Emerged as a form of agreed theory. Prior to the conference, all three were advocates of "traditional" principles, as well as some who were beginning to take huge influence seriously, and had a large listless center that did not believe the debate would be resolved. Subsequently, there were essentially only two groups: the giant influence camp and the agnostic.Giant effects are believed to have been common in the early solar system. Computer simulations of giant effects have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth – Moon system. These simulations also show that most moons are derived from the effector rather than proto-Earth. However, more recent simulations suggest that a large part of the Moon derives from proto-Earth. Other bodies in the inner solar system, such as Mars and Vesta, have very different isotopic compositions of oxygen and tungsten than the Earth, according to their meteorites. However, the Earth and the Moon have almost identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equation of the Earth – Moon system can be explained by the subsequent impact mixing of evaporated materials that formed both. The impact released too much energy, and then released material increased back into the Earth – Moon system. This would have melted the outer covering of the Earth, and thus became an ocean of magma. Similarly, the newly formed moon would also have been affected and would have its own ocean of lunar ocean; Its depth is approximate. In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institute in Washington reported the most accurate measurements of isotopic signatures in lunar rocks. The rocks in the Apollo program had the same isotopic signature as rocks on Earth, which is different from almost all other bodies in the solar system. This observation was unexpected, as most of the Moon's material was thought to come from Thia, and in 2007 it was announced that Thia and Earth were less than 1% likely to have identical isotopic signatures. Other lunar specimens of Apollo in 2012 had a titanium isotope composition similar to that of the Earth.

Internal structure of The Moon 

The Moon is a differentiated body. It has a geographically distinct crust, mantle and core. The Moon has a solid iron-containing inner core, possibly as small as a radius, composed mainly of liquid iron with a radius of approx. There is a partially fused boundary layer with a radius around the core. It is believed that this structure evolved through partial crystallization of a global magma ocean soon after the Moon formed 4.5 billion years ago. The crystallization of this ocean of magma would have created a mafic mantle by the precipitation and sinking of minerals including olivine clopypyroxine and orthoproxine; About three-quarters of the magma was crystallized in the ocean. Low-density plagioclase minerals can form and float in the upper crust. Surface geology The topography of the Moon has been measured by laser ultimetry and stereo image analysis. Its most visible topographic feature is the massive southern tip of the South Pole: the Aitken Basin, in some diameter, the largest crater of the Moon and the second largest corroborated. Impact crater in the solar system. Deep below, its floor is the lowest point on the lunar surface. The highest elevation of the surface lies directly to the northeast, and it has been suggested that it may have been swollen by the diagonal formation effect of the South Pole - Aiken Basin. Other large impact basins such as imbrium, serenitis. Crisium Smythi and Orientale have regionally lower elevations and higher ridges. Similar shrinking features are present in Mercury. A recent study of more than 12,000 images of orbiters has found that near the North Pole the Mare Frigoris, a large basin that is believed to be geologically dead, is cracking and changing. Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat over the years.

Volcanic features of The Moon 

Volcanic features of The Moon

The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains, which are clearly seen with the naked eye, are called maria, as they were once thought to be filled with water; They are now known as huge concrete pools of ancient basaltic lava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts contain more iron and no minerals from water. Most of these lavas erupted or flowed into sediments associated with impact valleys. Several geological provinces with gradient volcanoes and volcanic domes lie on the "Maria" side of the pass. Almost all maria are on the near side of the moon, and they cover 31% of the nearby surface. It is believed that the Lunar prospector is seen on the geochemical maps obtained by the gamma ray spectrometer, causing the underlying mantle to warm, to melt, due to the condensation of heat-generating elements under the adjacent crust. Partially arises on the surface and explodes. During the Imbrian period, most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted 3.0–3.5 billion years ago, although some radiometric dated specimens are as old as 4.2 billion years ago. Earthquakes and gas releases also indicate some sustained lunar activity. Just before this, evidence has been presented of a 2–10 million-year-old basaltic volcano located in the transition zone between the Laulet Crater, Orientale Basin, near and far sides of the Moon. A localized enrichment of heat-generating elements in an early warmer mantle and / or mantle may also be responsible for long-term activities as far away as the Oriental Basin. The light-colored regions of the Moon are called terra or, more commonly, elevated regions, as they are higher than most maries. They are radiometrically dated to 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent an accumulation of plagioclase from the ocean of lunar magma. Maria's nearness to the near-east probably reflects the extremely thick crust of the far-off highlands, which may be under the influence of the low velocity of a second Earth moon some tens of years later. Training.

Magnetic field of The Moon 

Magnetic field of The Moon

The external magnetic field of the Moon is normally less than 0.2 nanotella or one hundred thousandth of the Earth. Currently, the Moon does not have a global dipole magnetic field and is only likely to be acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating. However, at the beginning of its history 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was probably closer to Earth today. Atmosphere The atmosphere of the Moon is so thin that it is almost vacuum-less in mass. The surface pressure of this small mass is about 3 x 10–15 atm. This moon varies with the day. Its sources include thinning and quivering, due to the bombardment of lunar soil by ions from the solar wind. Elements detected include sodium and potassium, which are produced by sputtering, helium-4 and neon from the solar wind; And argon-40, radon-222 and polonium-210, deformed after their formation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle. The absence of neutral species such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and magnesium, which are present in the remolith, is not understood. In October 2017, a rough atmosphere, NASA scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston announced their discovery based on studies of the magma samples of the moon recovered by the Apollo mission, 3 to 4 billion years ago. Created a relatively rough environment for a period of one million years. This atmosphere was twice thicker than Mars due to the gases emitted by lunar volcanic eruptions. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually dissipated by solar winds and disintegrated into space.

Observation and exploration of The Moon

Apollo Mission

One of the earliest possible copies of the discovery of the moon before a space flight is the 5,000-year-old orthostat 47 in the North of Ireland. Understanding the Moon's cycles was an early development of astronomy: Babylonian astronomers recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses, the exact science in antiquity dates back to 380 BCE, and Indian astronomers described the monthly length of the Moon . . Astronomer and physicist Alhagen found that sunlight was not reflected from the moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the lunar surface of the moon in all directions. Shen Kuo of the Song Dynasty devised a metaphor, equivalent to the moon's crescent and a round, reflective silver ball of waning, sprinkled with white powder and viewed from the side, resembling a crescent. Looks However, in this Seleucia's Seleucus correctly proved that the tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that its height depends on the position of the Moon in relation to the Sun. In the same century, Aristarchus calculated the size and distance of the Earth from the Moon, obtaining a value approximately twenty times the radius of the Earth for distance. Ptolemy greatly improved these figures: His value of 59 times the average distance of the Earth's radius and his diameter of 0.292 in diameter from the Earth was close to the true values of about 60 and 0.273, respectively. Archimedes designed a planetarium that can calculate the movements of the moon and other objects in the solar system. During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the moon was increasingly recognized as a sphere, although many believed it was "perfectly smooth".In 1609, Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic images of the moon in his book and noticed that it was not smooth, but had mountains and craters. Thomas Harriet did, but did not publish such pictures a few months ago. Later telescopic mapping of the Moon: In the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Batista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi gave rise to the naming system of lunar features in use today. Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Midler's most accurate 1834-36 and their 1837 affiliated book, the first accurate and trigonometric study of lunar features, covered the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the moon with possible predictions . In earthly geography. Lunar craters, first seen by Galileo, were considered volcanoes until they were formed by collisions, according to Richard Proctor's 1870 proposal. Moon 1 was the first man-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass close to the Moon; The first man-made object to affect the lunar surface was Luna 2, and the first commonly depleted distant images of the Moon were Luna 3, all created in 1959. The first spacecraft to make a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first unmanned orbiter Luna 10 to orbit the moon, both in 1966. Two robot pioneers landed on the moon in 1970 and 1973 as part of the Soviet Lunokhod program. Luna 24 was the last Soviet mission to the moon. United States Mission In the late 1950s, at the height of the Cold War, the United States military conducted a classified feasibility study that proposed the construction of a human military outpost on the moon called Project Horizon. It has the potential to carry out a wide range of missions, from scientific research to nuclear bombardment of the Earth. The study included the possibility of conducting moon-based nuclear tests. The Air Force, which at the time was competing with the military for a leading role in the space program, developed a similar plan called Lunex. An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the broadcast on the Apollo television camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at the time. The Apollo 11–11 missions removed the rock and soil of the Moon in 2,196 different samples. The landing and return of the American moon was made possible in the early 1960s by considerable technological advances, such as impermeable chemistry, software engineering and atmospheric reproduction techniques, and highly capable management. Vast technical company. Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all Apollo landings. Long-lasting instrument stations including heat flux probes, seismometers, and magnetometers were installed at Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Earth's direct data transmission ended in late 1977.