Ancient India

AncientIndia

ThePrehistoric Period

Pre-historic

The prehistoric period in the history of mankind can roughly dated from 2000000 BC to about 3500-2500 BC, when the forst civilizations began to take shape.

          The history of India is no exception . The First modern human beings or the Homo sapiens set foot on the Indian subcontinent anywhere between 200000 BC and 40000 BC and they soon spread throughout a peninsular India. They continuously flooded the Indiansubcontinent in waves after waves of migration from what is present day Iran. These primitive people moved in groups of few ‘families’ and lived mainly on hunting and gathering.

StoneAge

stone-age

The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the stone age. The stone age is divided into three broad divisions-  Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (500,000-8000 BC), Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BC-6000 BC), and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (6000BC-1000BC) on the basis of the specialization of the stone tools, which were made during that time.

ThePaleolithic Age in India ( 500,000BC- 8000 BC)

Paleolithic Age

The human beings  living in the Paleolithic Age were essentially food gathers and depended on nature for food. The art of hunting and stalking wild animals individually and later in groups led to these people making stone weapons and tools. First crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as the size of the group began to increase and there was need for more food, these people began to make “specialized tools” by flaking stones, which were pointed on one end. These kind of tools were generally used to kill small animals and for tearing flesh from the carcass of the hunted animals. The basic technique of making these crude tools was by taking a stone and flaking its sides with a heavier stone. These tools were characteristic of the Paleolithic Age and were very rough. By this time, human beings had come to make and use fire. They mainly used hand axes, cleavers, chopper, blades, scrapers and burin. Their tools were made of hard rock called ‘quartzite’. Hence Paleolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’.

MesolithicAge (8,000-6,000 BC)

mesolithic-age

In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharp. To ensure a life that had abundance of food and clothing, the stone tools began to appear in increasingly specialized way. The simple handheld stone tools were now attached to thick branches from trees with rope made from animal skin and sinew. These tools are known as hand axes, which could be flung at fast-moving animals from a distance. Apart from hand axes, they also produced crude stone-tipped wooden spears, borers, and burins. This period also saw the domestication of animals and graving of wild varieties of crops. Because of farming, small settlements began to take shape. Archaeological excavations have unearthed Mesolithic sites in the ChottaNagpur area of central India and the areas south of the Krishna River. The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal belong to the Mesolithic Age and are famous for their cave paintings. The prehistoric artist used natural white and red pigments in depicting the various items, which were close to his heart and sustenance. The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are known as Microlith.

NeolithicAge (6,000-1,000BC)

neolithic age

The Neolithic Age (6,000 – 1,000 BC) or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age and is characterized by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins. The Neolithic Age also saw the domestication of Cattle, Horses, and other animals. Which were used for dairy and meat products. An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel. The Neolithic Age quickly gave way to a number of small “cultures” that were highly technical. These people used copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram. They lived in cave and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing scenes. They also knew the art of making boats. They could also weave cotton and wool to make cloth. In the later phase of Neolithic Phase people led a more settled life and lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed. Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K.

ChalcolithicPhase

chalcolithic-period

Towards the end of the Neolithic period, metals like bronze and copper began to be used. This was the Chalcolithic phase (18, 00-1,000 BC). Chalcolithic cultures extended from the Chotanagpur plateau to the upper Gangetic basin. Some of the sites of this era are Brahmgiri (near Mysore) and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

( परीक्षा )

The Test ( परीक्षा )

1

When Sardar Sujan Singh, Diwan of the State of Devgarh, reached old age he remembered God. He went to the Maharaja and supplicated, ‘O, friend of the oppressed, this slave has served you for forty years. Now I seek your permission to serve God for some time; moreover   I’m far advanced in years and have no energy left to handle the administration of the state. I don’t want to sully my name by some unintended mistake and ruin my reputation earned through a life-long service.’ 

Raja Sahib had great respect for his very experienced and accomplished Diwan. He tried to persuade him to continue but when Diwan Sahib did not budge, he acceded to his request but on the condition that he himself will have to select the new Diwan.

The next day the important newspapers of the country carried this advertisement for appointment to the office of Diwan for the state: Anyone who considers himself suitable for appointment to this office should present himself  before the present Diwan, Sardar Sujan Singh. He need not be a graduate, but should be strongly built. Those suffering from weak stomachs need not take the trouble to come. All the aspirants would be treated as guests and kept under observation for one month for their behaviour and conduct. More than education, commitment to duty would be rewarded. One who came up to these expectations would be appointed to this high office. 

2

The advertisement created a furor in the country. Such an exalted office, and no qualifications! It all seemed a matter of chance. Hundreds set out to try their luck. In Devagarh one could see newest varieties of people. From every train a motley crowd of visitors deboarded. Some came from Madras, others from Punjab. Some displaying the latest fashions,others showing off their simplicity. Pandits and maulvis also saw an opportunity to test their fortunes. Poor fellows had always rued the lack of degrees, but here there was no need for them. Colourful cloaks, and chogas, and all varieties of men's wear and head-gear were now on display in Devgarh. However, the largest number were degree holders, for even if it was not  a precondition  a degree did act as a fig leaf. 

Sardar Sujan Singh had made very good arrangements to accommodate and entertain the guests. Lodged in their rooms, the candidates counted each day like  Musalmans do during Ramazan. Every visitor tried to showcase his life in the best manner possible.  Mr A, who used to get up at nine, was seen strolling in the park before sunrise. Mr B, who was addicted to the hookah, now smoked cigars behind closed doors. Some others, who at home treated their servants like slaves, talked to the servants here with unusual courtesy and politeness. Mr. K, who was an atheist, follower of Huxley,  had become so religious that even the temple priests might have felt threatened with dismissal. Yet another, Mr. L, who hated books,  was these days lost in browsing  through great big books. Whosoever you  talked to, seemed a model of gentleness and good conduct. Sharmaji spent his time reciting mantras from the Vedas  and maulvi sahib had nothing else to do except saying the namaaz and  reciting the Quran. Each one thought it was just a one-month botheration, and once he had succeeded who would care.

But that discerning old jeweller was unobtrusively observing everyone, trying to spot the swan among the cranes.

3

 One day the fashionable group proposed playing a hockey match. This proposal was made by some seasoned players of the game. After all this too was an art, why not show it off? Who knows this might help. So the decision was taken, the teams formed and the match began. The ball began to be pushed and thrashed like some office equipment.

This game was altogether new for Devgarh. The literate and the respectable people played thoughtful games like chess and cards. Games involving running and jumping were believed to be children’s games.

The match was turning out to be a spirited contest. When the attacking side rushed forward with the ball they looked like a wave surging forward, but the defending side stood like a  wall of steel to check its advance.

It went on till the evening. The players were drenched in sweat, their faces red with heat. They were gasping for breath, and the match ended in a draw. 

It was dark now. There was a nala close to the playground. There was no bridge across the nala and the wayfarers had to wade through it to go to the other side. The match had just ended and the players were resting to get their breath back. Just then a farmer came to the nala with a cart-full of grain. Partly because the track was muddy and partly because the climb was steep, he  was unable to drive the cart up through the nala. He yelled at the bullocks; he tried to push the wheels up with his hands, but, the cart was overloaded and the bullocks not  strong enough. The cart wouldn’t go up, and if it did it slid back again. The farmer tried to push the cart up again and again, whipped the bullocks out of frustration but the cart refused to go up the slope. The poor fellow looked here and there but found no help. He could not leave the cart unattended and go somewhere to seek help. He was in great trouble. At that very moment the players happened to pass by carrying their sticks. The farmer looked at them with pleading eyes but didn’t have the courage to ask for help. The players also looked at him but with their eyes closed, eyes that reflected no sympathy, that were selfish and drunk with pride, showing no sign of generosity or compassion.

4 

But among the players there was one person who had both sympathy and courage. Today he had hurt his foot during the match and was slowly limping along. Suddenly his eyes fell on the cart and he stopped. The moment he looked at the farmer he understood the situation. He kept his stick on one side, removed his coat and said to the farmer, ‘Should I help you push up your cart?’

The farmer saw in front of him a tall well-built man. ‘Hazoor, I dare not ask you.’  The young man said. ‘It seems you have been stranded here for a long time. Now go and sit on the cart and drive the bullocks while I push the wheels up.’

The farmer went and sat in the cart. The young man pushed the cart up. The whole place was muddy and he was driven into the mud up to his knees. Yet he didn’t give up. He pushed the cart again. The farmer shouted at his bullocks. The bullocks got support, regained their  nerve and with a last effort they pulled the cart out of the nala.

The farmer stood before the youth with folded hands and said, ‘Maharaj, you have done a great favour to me. Otherwise I would have had to spend the whole night here.’

The young man said jokingly, ‘Now, would you give me some reward?’

The farmer said, ‘God willing, you will be the Diwan.’

The young man looked at the farmer. He wondered whether the farmer was not Sujan Singh himself. He had the same voice, the same face. The farmer too looked at the youth with a quick eye. Perhaps he too sensed what the young man was thinking. He smiled and said, ‘One finds pearls only by diving into deep waters.’

5

The period of one month was over. The day of reckoning arrived. All the candidates were anxious to know what destiny had in store for them. The wait looked like crossing a mountain. Hope and dejection crossed their faces like shadows. No one knew who was to be the lucky one, goddess Lakshmi’s favourite.

In the evening the Raja sahib held his court. The city’s rich and famous, the officers of the state, the courtiers, and the candidates for the office of the Diwan – all were assembled in the court dressed in their best. The candidates’ hearts were beating fast.

Sujan Singh got up and said, ‘You aspirants for the position of the Diwan, forgive me for any trouble I might have caused you. For this office I  needed a person who was full of compassion and generosity; someone who had great determination to face any difficulty. Fortunately the state has discovered such a person. People who possess such qualities are few in this world and are already holding high offices, so we cannot approach them. I congratulate the state to have  pandit Jankinath  as the new Diwan.

The officers and the wealthy of the state looked at Jankinath with appreciation, the candidates with envy.

Sardar Sahib spoke again, ‘I believe you will not hesitate to accept that a person who, in spite of being injured, should help a poor farmer drag his cart out of mud must be compassionate and strong-willed. Such a person would never oppress the poor. His determination will keep his heart steady. He may be deceived but would not budge from the path of duty.’

PREMCHAND

PREMCHAND

Munsi Premchand

Dhanpat Rai Shrivastava (31 July 1880 – 8 October 1936), better known by his pen name Munshi Premchand, was an Indian writer famous for his modern Hindi-Urdu literature. He is one of the most celebrated writers of the Indian subcontinent, and is regarded as one of the foremost Hindi writers of the early twentieth century.^[4] He began writing under the pen name "Nawab Rai", but subsequently switched to "Premchand". Munshi being an honorary prefix. A novel writer, story writer and dramatist, he has been referred to as the "Upanyas Samrat" ("Emperor among Novelists") by writers. 

Early life

Munshi Premchand was born on 31 July 1880 in Lamhi, a village located near Varanasi (Benares) and was named Dhanpat Rai ("master of wealth"). His ancestors came from a large Kayastha family.

            His grandfather, Guru Sahai Rai was a patwari (village land record-keeper), and his father Ajaib Rai was a post office clerk. His mother was Anandi Devi of Karauni village.

Dhanpat Rai was the fourth child of Ajaib Lal and Anandi; the first two were girls who died as infants, and the third one was a girl named Suggi  His uncle, Mahabir, a rich landowner, nicknamed him "Nawab" ("Prince"). "Nawab Rai" was the first pen name chosen by Dhanpat Rai.

When he was 7 years old, Dhanpat Rai began his education at a madrasa in Lalpur, located near Lamahi. He learnt Urdu and Persian from a maulvi in the madrasa. When he was 8, his mother died after a long illness.

He learnt English at a missionary school, and studied several works of fiction including George W. M. Reynolds's eight-volume The Mysteries of the Court of London He composed his first literary work at Gorakhpur, which was never published and is now lost. It was a farce on a bachelor, who falls in love with a low-castewoman. The

character was based on Premchand's uncle, who used to scold him for being obsessed with reading fiction; the farce was probably written as a revenge for this.

Born	Dhanpat Rai Shrivastava 31 July 1880 Lamhi, Benares State, British India
Died	8 October 1936 (aged 56) Varanasi, Benares State, British India
Occupation	Writer, Novelist
Language	Hindi, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu)
Nationality	Indian
Notable works	Godaan, Bazaar-e-Husn, Karmabhoomi, Shatranj ke khiladi, Gaban, "Mansarovar","Idgah"
Spouse	Shivarani Devi
Children	Amrit Rai

Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

 (23 September 1908 – 24 April 1974) was an IndianHindi poet, essayist, patriot and academic, who is considered as one of the most important modern Hindi poets. He remerged as a poet of rebellion as a consequence of his nationalist poetry written in the days before Indian independence. His poetry exuded veer rasa, and he has been hailed as a Rashtrakavi ("national poet") on account of his inspiring patriotic compositions.He was a regular poet of Hindi Kavi sammelan on those days and is hailed to be as popular and connected to poetry lovers for Hindi speakers as Pushkin for Russians.

Dinkar initially supported the revolutionary movement during the Indian independence struggle, but later became a Gandhian. However, he used to call himself a "Bad Gandhian" because he supported the feelings of indignation and revenge among the youth.^[4] In Kurukshetra, he accepted that war is destructive but argued that it is necessary for the protection of freedom. He was close to prominent nationalists of the time such as Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Sri Krishna Sinha, Rambriksh Benipuri and Braj Kishore Prasad.

Dinkar was elected three times to the Rajya Sabha, and he was the member of this house from 3 April 1952 to 26 January 1964, and was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1959. He was also the Vice-Chancellor of Bhagalpur University (Bhagalpur, Bihar) in the early 1960s.

Creative Struggle

Dinkar's first poem was published in 1924 in a paper called Chhatra Sahodar (Brother of Students). Chhatra Sahodar was a local newspaper established under the editorship of Narsingh Das. In 1928, the peasant's satyagraha under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel proved successful in Bardoli of Gujarat.He wrote ten poems based on this Satyagraha which was published in a book form under the title Vijay-Sandesh (Message of Victory). This composition is now available. Right in front of Patna College, the office of "Yuvak" functioned. To escape the wrath of the government, Dinkar got his poems published under the pseudonym "Amitabh".On 14 September 1928, a poem of his, on the martyrdom of Jatin Das, was published. Around this time he wrote two small works of poetry called Birbala and Meghnad-Vadh, but neither of them is traceable now. In 1930, he composed a poem called Pran-Bhang (The Breach of Vow), which was mentioned by Ramchandra Shukla in his history.So the journey of his poetic career should be deemed to have begun with Vijay-Sandesh. Before this his poems had become a frequent feature of the magazine Desh, published from Patna and of Pratibha, which was published from Kannauj.

Dinkar's first collection of poems, Renuka, was published in November 1935. Banarsi Das Chaturvedi, the editor of Vishal Bharat wrote that the Hindi speaking people should celebrate the publication of Renuka. Around this time, Chaturvediji went to Sevagram. He took with him a copy of Renuka. The copy was given to Mahatma Gandhi.

Work

His works are mostly of 'Veer Rasa', or the 'brave mode', although Urvashi is an exception to this. Some of his greatest works are Rashmirathi and Parashuram ki Prateeksha. He is hailed as the greatest Hindi poet of 'Veer Rasa' since Bhushan.

Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi wrote that he was very popular among people whose mother-tongue was not Hindi and he was a symbol of love for one's own mother-tongue. Harivansh Rai Bachchan wrote that for his proper respect he should get four Bharatiya Jnanpith Awards – for poetry, prose, languages and for his service to Hindi. Rambriksh Benipuri wrote that Dinkar is giving voice to the revolutionary movement in the country. Namvar Singh wrote that he was really the sun of his age.

Hindi writer Rajendra Yadav, whose novel 'Sara Akash' also carried a few lines of Dinkar's poetry, has said of him He was always very inspiring to read. His poetry was about reawakening. He often delved into Hindu mythology and referred to heroes of epics such as Karna. He was a poet of anti-imperialism and nationalism, says well-known Hindi writer Kashinath Singh.

He also wrote social and political satires aimed at socio-economic inequalities and exploitation of the underprivileged.

A progressive and humanist poet, he chose to approach history and reality directly and his verse combined oratorical vigour with a declamatory diction The theme of Urvashi revolves round love, passion, and relationship of man and woman on a spiritual plane, distinct from their earthly relationship.

His Kurukshetra is a narrative poem based on the Santi Parva of the Mahabharata.It was written at a time when the memories of the Second World War were fresh in the mind of the poet.

Krishna Ki Chaetavani is another poem composed on events that led to the Kurukshetra war in the Mahabharata. His Samdheni is a collection of poems reflecting the poet's social concern transcending the boundaries of the nation.

His Rashmirathi is considered as one of the best version of Hindu epic Mahabharata.

Himmat aur zindigi

Himmat and Zindagi

Courage and life

- Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

The real enjoyment of life is not for those who sleep in the shade of flowers. Rather, under the shade of flowers, if any taste of life is hidden, then it is also for those who are coming away from the desert, whose throat is dry, lips are torn, and all body is sweated. The nectar of water in the water knows that which has dried up in the sun, it is not that which has never happened in the desert. 

Things to please were already and still there. The difference is that the ones who pay the happiness before and take their fun afterwards get more tastes. For those who get comfort easily, there is only death for them.
Those who avoid water from the fear of falling asleep, the danger of sunk in the sea is for them. Those who are practicing to swim in the waves will come out with pearls.
Enjoy the freshness and coolness of moonlight that man who is tired after sunburn throughout the day, whose body now feels the need for fluidity and whose mind is satisfied that it has spent a whole day in some good work.
On the contrary, it is also the man who was hiding under the wings and closed his windows throughout the day and now his prayer is laid out in the moonlight at night. The illusion might have happened to him as if he was enjoying the moonlight, but the truth is that it is rotting in the juice of aromatic flowers overnight.

Fasting and restraint are not the means of suicide. The real taste of food comes to those who can remain without food for a few days. 'Tekteen Bhujinatha', do not sacrifice the life of sacrifice; this is not the only preaching of God; Because of the pleasures gained from life when one enjoys the blessings of God, it can not be attained by becoming a Nira Bhogi. 

The big things develop in bigger crises, big celebrities dominate the world by plunging into big trouble. Akbar had defeated the enemy of his father at thirteen years of age, whose only reason was that Akbar was born in the desert, and that too at the time when his father had left a musk and no wealth Was not.
In the Mahabharata, most of the people of the country were in favor of Vir Kauras. But still the victory came of Pandavas; Because they had the trouble of the lakshaktha, because they had crossed the risk of exile.

Mr. Winston Churchill has said that life is the greatest capable gesture. All the qualities of a man are born only by being intensified.

There are two suns in life One of them should try for the bigger motive, extend the hand to cast a sparkling victory, and if the failures are making the blindness of the blindness with the light of passion, then even then he should fall behind. Do not remove.
The second aspect is that to become a pillar of those poor souls who do not get much happiness, nor are they the only coincidence of grief, because they live in such a twilight, where neither the laugh nor the laugh Ever heard of the cry of defeat. People in this twilight world drink water of the pier, they can not gamble with life. And who says that there is no happiness in putting the whole life on the stake?
If the path is going forward, then real fun is only going to increase the foot.

The life of courage is the biggest life. The biggest identity of such a life is that it is absolutely fearless, absolutely unconscious. The courageous man's first identity is that he does not worry about what people watching the spectacle are thinking about him. The person who lives by ignoring public opinion is the real force of the world and the light of humanity also meets the same person. Across the neighborhood, seeing and walking, this is the work of ordinary creatures. People who make revolution do not compare their purpose to the purpose of neighboring or do not make their own moves look dirty by seeing the movements of neighbors.

The courageous man takes the juice of those dreams, which dreams have no practical meaning.
The courageous man does not borrow money, he reads his own book written in his thoughts.
Walking in the herd and feeding in the herd, it is the work of buffalo and sheep. Lion is also lonely even if she is alone.
Arnold Bennett has written in one place that the man who feels that at any great determination he could not work with courage, he could not accept the challenge of life, he could not be happy. A man who does not show courage on a big occasion always hears a voice within his own soul, a voice which he can hear and which he can not even stop.This voice keeps on boring, "You could not show courage, you ran like a coward."
In the worldly sense, which we call pleasure, it is better not to meet, even then, it is better than that when we die, we hear this rebuke from our soul that there was a lack of courage in you that you lacked courage, that you are right Time ran away from life.
Living well is always a risk to live, and the person who puts a circle at every place of risk for living a good life, he eventually gets imprisoned between his own surroundings and he can not get any kind of life, because the risk In an attempt to avoid it, in fact, he has kept life alive.
From life, in the end, we get as much as they put money in it. To capitalize this capital is to face the crisis of life; it is to reverse its pages, all its letters are written not only from flowers but also with some coals.
The distinction of life is something that is known to him that it is knowledgeable that life is a never ending thing.

Hey! O life seekers! If you are satisfied with the dead soldiers of the shore, who will bring out the hidden moksha fund in the distance of the sea?
There is also a part of you as much as you have lost in the world. That thing can also be yours, which you are returning towards your reach, and you are returning.
Do not diminish the desire for sorrow, press the fruits of life together with both hands, squeeze the juice of juice, your shed can also flow. 

This rustic cluster that bites your way,

Kirtidas is not a person who likes to take it for themselves.

Life is not his Yudhisthira! Who are afraid of him

They fight their feet by fearlessly.