Evolution of Geography

GEOGRAPHY

Geographyis one of the oldest earth science and its roots date back in the works of the early Greek scholars. The word ‘geography’ was first used by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the third century B.C.

Eratosthenes

          Geo “Earth” and Graphy “to describe” literal meaning of geography is to describe about the earth’s surfaces. In other words “Geography is largely the study of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena and landscapes created by such interactions.” It is about how, why, and where human and natural activities occur and how these activities are interconnected. Geography has undergone changes in its approach. The earlier geographers were descriptive geographers. Later, geography came to be developed as an analytical science. Today the discipline is not only concerned with descriptions but also with analysis as well as prediction.

Geography has been defined differently through different periods of its history Geographical work in ancient Greece had followed two traditions. One was the mathematical tradition which was focused on fixing the location of places on the earth’s surface, and the other was gathering geographic information through travels and field work. According to them, the purpose of geography was to provide a description of the physical features and conditions in different parts of the world. The emergence of regional approach in geography also emphasized the descriptive character of geography. According the Humboldt, geography is the science related to nature and it studies and describes all material things found on earth. Another important school of thought defined geography as the study of man-environment relationships.

Development of Geography

Ancient Period

The earliest records illustrate the interests of scholar in understanding the physical domain of the earth by making maps and astronomical measurements. The Greeks are given the credit of being the earliest geographers, prominent among them being Hower, Herodouts, Thales Aristotle and Eratosthenes.

 

Herodouts

Pre-modern Period

This period starting from the middle of 15^th century and continuous with 18^th early provides us enormous information about the physical and cultural nature of the world by the travels and explorations of early geographers. The early 17^th century witnessed the beginnings of new scientific geography. Christopher Columbus and Vasco de gama, Fesdinend  Meghellan and Thomas Cook were important explorers and travelled among those. They contributed in the development of cartography and discovering new lands, and developing geography into a scientific discipline.

 

Christopher-Columbus

Modern Period

Ritter and Himboldt are frequently referred to us the founder of modern geography. Generally, latter half of 19^th century is considered as a period of modern geography. The first modern geographer in true sense was Ratzel who built the structure of modern geography on the foundations laid down by classical geographers.

 

Ratzel

Recent Period

The development of geography during the post Second World War period has been very rapid. The American and European geographer such as Hartshorne have contributed the maximum during this phase. Hartshorne described geography as a science dealing with area differentiation. The present day geographers look upon regional approach and systematic approach as complimentary rather than contradictory.

Methods and techniques of geography 

Each branch of systematized knowledge has certain methods tools and techniques on which it depends to further its basic objectives. Geography too has its tools, techniques and methods. Important among them are globes, maps, diagrams, relief models and spatial analytical methods. Cartography is concerned with preparation of maps and diagrams to show distribution of geographical phenomena. Important methods in geography are deductive and inductive in nature. Various statistical techniques and models are used for regional analysis and to understand spatial distribution and interaction.

Cartography 

Most of us are fascinated with maps. “Cartography” is the study and practice of making maps and diagrams. It represents the earth with maps and abstract symbols. Maps have traditionally been made using pen, ink and paper, but computers have revolutionized cartography and with GIS methods one can prepare maps and diagrams with greater choice and efficiency.

Spatial data is obtained from measurement and other published sources and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from drawing with ink or paper type methods of map making towards the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making software that falls into one of three main types, Computer aided data management (CAD), Geographic Information Systems (G.I.S) and Global Positioning system(GPS).

          Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographer must understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and make such maps that will encourage everyone to use the maps to find places or use it for their daily work. A cartographer must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing.

“Geographic Information Systems” deals with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner. In addition to other sub discipline of geography, GIS specialist must understand computer science and database systems. Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS technology, as an expansion of Cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognized the environmental consequences of human activities, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information systems. Such visualization can help to predict what will happen to an area if it is repeatedly flooded, or what changes are expected if a particular industry is located or developed in an area.

GIS

Quantitative methods in Geography

These aspects of geographical techniques deal with numerical methods most commonly found in geography. In addition to spatial analysis, you are likely to find methods like cluster analysis, discriminate analysis in geographic studies.

Regional Science method

In the 1950s, the regional science movement arose led by Walter Isard. This provided a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical  questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography, Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which like regional economic, resource management, location theory, urban and regional planning, transportation and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environment quality and examined for regional development. 

 

Globe

State Formation and Urbanization

From the Mahajanapadas to Nandas

(BC 600 to BC 321)

mahajanapadas

The post-Vedic period has a unique place in the history of ancient India, characterised as it was by intensification of social stratification, growth of a large number of urban centre’s and the emergence of many states. Each of these was the result of long drawn complex processes with bearings on each other. Further, all these changes did not take place in isolation, rather they were inextricately inter-related. The new emergent system needed some ideological support, which was provided by the new heterodox systems, two of which, namely Jainism and Buddhism, became quite prominent. The orthodox Brahmanism saw many changes creeping in so as to accommodate the emerging patterns.

Gautam-Buddha

          In other to appreciate the problem of state formation and the growth of urbanism it seems necessary to look into the conditions prevailing during the later-vedic phase. Having done this in the previous Vedic age we may now set ourselves to look for the factor contributing to the emergence of a state system i.e. transformation of raja as a chief to raja as the king in the Janapadas. 

Jainism

Economic Background

We know for sure that after AD 800 iron come to be used widely in almost all the areas in India. But till AD 600 it was only used for making weapons. Only after this date iron came to be used in making agricultural and other tools. This period also witnessed a great increase in the number of settlement in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. While iron weapons provided the warrior class a more potent tool to consolidate their position in the socio-political field, its use in agriculture resulted in the great expansion of agrarian landscape. Now with the help of iron axes, thick rain-forest of the Doab belt could be easily cleared and settled. The use of iron ploughshare facilitated agricultural operations in a big way. With the help of iron ploughshare the soil could be turned from a relatively deeper levels resulting in increased productivity and saving of precious time in tilling the land. This means that more land could be tilled in the same amount of time. This, combine with wet rice cultivation and the technique of paddy transplantation, increased the productivity. The yield per acre in case of wet rice cultivation is substantially higher than in other forms of agriculture. The increased food production could now sustain the increasing population in the middle Ganga plain. The increase in population is evidenced by the increase in the number of settlements. The PGW culture sites, generally associated with the prolific use of iron, are found in greater numbers (700) in the Doab area as compared with the more westerly (Haryana and Punjab) region. And it is generally believed that a substantial increase in population is a prerequisite for the emergence of cities anywhere. The whole process was apparent in the Ganga Valley. Several studies have shown that the number and size of settlements continuously increased during the first millennium BC.

ploughshare

          However, archaeologists and historians differ on the question of the prime mover which precipitated the change. The story of Videgha Mathava and his priest Gotama Rahugana contained in the Shatapatha Brahmana suggest an eastward movement of peoples from the Sarasvati Valley, establishing settlements, cleaning forests, and cultivating freshly cleared land.

          Archaeologically speaking, with the sixth century BC begins Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) phase distinguished by iron object for purposes of both war and production, and punch-marked coins and commodity exchange. The geographical area in which all these development took place covers the middle Gangetic plain in west and Malwa in the South-west. Nearly 450 NBPW sites found in the middle Gangetic plain were basically rural settlements in the age of Buddha. Large scale agricultural settlements and the formation of a good many villages are mentioned in Pali texts. The Pali texts generally assigned to the period 500-300 BC are: Nikayas, Suttanipata and portions of Vinay Pitaka. These texts should be considered in conjunction with the Ashtadhyayi of Panini which is placed between 500 BC and 400 BC. Further many Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras, particularly those of Apastamba, are considered contemporary with Panini. The Shrautsutras also belong to pre-Mauryan times. The early Pali texts refer to the use of iron for purposes of cultivation. Ayanagala (iron ploughshare), Phala (share), Ayokuta (hammer), Ayoghana (hammer), etc. are mentioned in early Pali texts. Ayoghana and ayovikara kushi (iron ploughshare) also appear in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. Sugarcane, mustard, paddy seedlings – all need deep and continuous ploughings which could be done with the use of iron implements only. Moreover such implements have been excavated at Atranjikhera, Ropar, Jakhera, Kaushambi, Sonpur (Gaya), Raghuasoi (Vaishali), Rajghat (Varanasi) etc. However the number of iron tools and implements is not very large which is due to two factors. Firstly, the moist nature of soil and Secondly, lack of excavations of the rural settlements.

          By 500 BC the people of middle Gangetic plain had come to utilize the rich iron mines of Singhbhum. The term such as bhastra (Panini) and bhasta (Pali texts) suggest that bellows made of lether were in use in the age of the Buddha. The use of Punchmarked silver coins, as early as 500 BC, and the construction of large-scale wooden structures also demonstrate the use of iron tools such as Kuthari (chisels), Vasi (adzes) and aragga (Saw).

On the whole, the agricultural operations had become quite elaborate. Fields were divided according to their productivity. Irrigation was widely practiced and the practice of keeping the land fallow was known. People came to have an agricultural calendar based on six seasons and 27nakshartas. Some new plants and fruit trees were utilized such as mango,Shala, Jambu, Madhuka and Palasha. Supplemented by various types of handicrafts, mentioned in Panini and early Pali texts, all these developments added to a demographic revelution in the middle Gangetic basin. Consequently, a large number of settlements sprung up there.   

          The conjunction of literary and archeological material indicated the advent of cities in the middle Gangetic plain around the sixth century BC. This is  also a period which witnessed the beginning of the written tradition in India. The people in towns of this period lived in wooden houses, defenses or fortifications etc. Apart from wooden structures, people in the towns of the age of the Buddha in the middle Gangetic plain lived in mud houses. A large clay embankment of around 500 BC has been unearthed at Rajghat. Vaisali has a mud stupa. The early NBPW phase does not show any evidence of brick – fire-baked or sun-dried. However, in subsequent phase baked-bricks were used for housing in some large settlements. Cities of this period were never planned, which was the hallmark of Indus urbanism. Contrary to this, the literary sources always talk about planned layouts of the cities. This feature came into vogue only around second century BC.

          Another feature that appeared around 500 BC is the use of coins, which is not attested to in any phase of Harappan urbanism. These early coins were made of silver and copper and are known as punch-marked coins. The coin of the highest value was satamana of silver followed by karsapana. The copper masas and kakini were coins of smaller denominations. The punching devices of these early coins bear no inscriptions. Instead, they have various forms of figures, symbols etc. These symbols appears on only one side, the other side remains blank.